by Dr. Ali Shehata
Specific Women’s Issues: In-Depth Comparisons
Throughout this chapter, and more specifically in the research that follows in this section, extensive historical references and scriptural commentaries are often discussed. This respected Rabbi said this, this Christian Saint or Church father said that. Truly it can be a bit overwhelming. Yet, as respected as these prominent scholars may be, a number of people who follow both Judaism and Christianity today are likely to think that a number of these references don’t apply to them.
No doubt, Judaism, and to a greater extent Christianity, have evolved to a certain degree over the past two thousand years. As a result of this evolution, some of the opinions and rulings that were previously part of both of these religious traditions have long since faded away. So why discuss old ideas and interpretations? All of this history does bring us to a very important conclusion.
In Islam, women were granted their rights and their inherent dignity directly through revelation; directly by the word of God. Muslims never had to concern themselves with changing or reinterpreting their scriptures to erase outdated views or to correct clear injustices. The Judeo-Christian scholars on the other hand, despite their deep knowledge and religious devotion, most often inserted their own societal practices and opinions into the scriptures. This practice then led to Judeo-Christian women having to fight for their God-given rights—either by reinterpreting the Holy Scriptures or by discarding them entirely in favor of secular laws. Thus, the historicity of these matters is vitally important to demonstrate both the original positions which the Judeo-Christian authorities took on a number of these issues, as well as the changes that they felt were necessary to be made.
Education
In Judaism, there is considerable evidence pointing to the deplorability of women studying the religious scriptures and consequently the teaching of religion. In Kiddushin 29b, the Talmud states:
How do we know that she [the mother] has no duty to teach her children? Because it is written, [and you shall teach], which also reads [and you shall study]: hence whoever is commanded to study, is commanded to teach; whoever is not commanded to study, is not commanded to teach. And how do we know that she is not bound to teach herself? Because it is written, [and you shall teach]—[and you shall learn]: the one whom others are commanded to teach is commanded to teach himself; and the one whom others are not commanded to teach, is not commanded to teach himself. How then do we know that others are not commanded to teach her? Because it is written, “And you shall teach them to your sons” — but not your daughters.
Thus, Rabbis have concluded that a woman’s exemption from the commandment of learning Torah is manifested in three ways:
1. A woman is not required to teach her sons Torah;
2. A woman is not required to learn Torah herself;
3. A father is not required to teach Torah to his daughters.
On this matter, Rabbi Eliezer of the 1st Century CE states: Rabbi Eliezer ben Horkonus, a Jewish scholar of the second generation (1st century CE), who traced his pedigree for ten generations back to the Biblical Prophet Ezra. Viewed by many Jews as one of the great teachers of the period of the Mishnah, he was known in the Talmud simply as Rabbi Eliezer although there are references to him as Rabbi Eliezer the great.
Whoever teaches his daughter torah teaches her obscenity (sometimes translated – it is as though he taught her promiscuity). [Babylonian Talmud: Mishnah Sotah: 3, 4] Swidler, L. (1979). Biblical Affirmations of Woman. Westminster: John Knox Press
Furthermore, according to Jewish rabbis, women were mentally deficient and thus incapable of undertaking the challenging task of learning the scriptures. For example, in the writings of the 12th Century CE Rabbi Maimonides, whose works and views are considered a cornerstone of Orthodox Jewish thought and study till today, we read:
A woman who studies Torah is rewarded, but not to the same degree as is a man, for she is not commanded and anyone who does that which he is not commanded to do, does not receive the same reward as one who is commanded, but only a lesser reward. However, even though she is rewarded, the Sages commanded that a man must not teach his daughter Torah. This is because the mind of the majority of women is not disposed to study and they will turn the words of Torah into words of nonsense according to their limited understanding. Our sages said that anyone who teaches his daughter Torah is to be considered as if he had taught her trivial and unimportant things. What were they referring to? The Oral Torah. However, the Written Torah should not be taught before the fact, but if he has taught her, it is not considered as if he has taught her promiscuity (tiflut). [Hilchot Talmud Torah 1:13] Angel, M.D. (2009). Maimonides, Spinoza and Us: Toward an Intellectually Vibrant Judaism. Woodstock: Jewish Lights Publishing
Moreover on the same point, the Jewish law code known as the Mishnah states clearly:
May the words of Torah be burned [first five books of the Old Testament], than that they should be handed over to women. [Babylonian Talmud Sotah, 10a] Swidler, L. (1979). Biblical Affirmations of Woman. Westminster: John Knox Press
On the contrary, the Gospels record that Jesus not only taught women, but he even went so far as to praise a particular women (Martha’s sister Mary in Luke 10:38-42) for her learning over her sister’s concern for entertaining the guests. Yet, Christianity in general continued the Jewish tradition of limiting the scholarship of women as can be demonstrated in the clear instructions of Paul in the New Testament. It must be remembered that Christianity is based upon the foundation of the Old Testament which is the fountainhead of many Jewish legal commandments, and thus legally there should be little difference between the two religions as has been proven true historically. What then do the writings of St. Paul reveal about the education of women? There are two main passages that critics point to in this regard.
As in all the congregations of the saints, women should remain silent in the churches. They are not allowed to speak, but must be in submission, as the Law says. If they want to inquire about something, they should ask their own husbands at home; for it is disgraceful for a woman to speak in the church. [NIV, 1 Corinthians 14:33-35]
A woman should learn in quietness and full submission. I do not permit a woman to teach or to have authority over a man; she must be silent. For Adam was formed first, then Eve. And Adam was not the one deceived; it was the woman who was deceived and became a sinner. But women will be saved through childbearing—if they continue in faith, love and holiness with propriety. [NIV, 1 Timothy 2:8-15]
Commentary: When the apostle exhorts Christian women to seek information on religious subjects from their husbands at home, it shows that believing families ought to assemble for promoting spiritual knowledge … The way to keep peace, truth, and order in the church, is to seek that which is good for it, to bear with that which is not hurtful to its welfare, and to keep up good behavior, order, and decency. (Matthew Henry’s Concise Commentary, 1706)
Conversely in Islam, education is not only allowed to women, but it is an individual obligation that every Muslim must perform; man or woman. In fact, Islam is the religion of knowledge. The first five verses of the Quran to be revealed to the Prophet Muhammad pbuh establish the importance of reading, the key to knowledge and understanding. God states:
Read! In the Name of your Lord Who created …
He created man from a clot .
Read! And your Lord is the Most Generous.
Who has taught by the pen,
Taught mankind that which they knew not {96:1-5}
It is essential to understand from these verses that God didn’t distinguish between men and women; the virtue of knowledge was discussed for the benefit of all who cared to seek it, and not restricted to men. Furthermore, this obligation to seek knowledge was not merely an encouragement for women to pursue, but it was obligatory upon women; young and old, rich and poor. The Prophet Muhammad pbuh said,
Seeking knowledge is obligatory upon every Muslim. [Ibn Majah]
The Prophet Muhammad pbuh also sought to ensure that women were being educated in Islam to the point that he even ordered the men who had traveled from afar to learn directly from him to pass on what they had learned to the women in their families:
Malik ibn al-Huwayrith said, “We came to the Prophet, may God exalt his praise and grant him peace, as young men of about the same age and stayed twenty nights with him. The Messenger of God was very kind and generous with us. When he realized that we were missing our families he asked us about those we had left behind us and we informed him. He said, ‘Return to your families and stay with them and teach them and instruct them’ …” [Abu Dawud]
Furthermore, Islam places absolutely no limits on scholarship in regards to women, a fact that has allowed women to reach the highest positions of education throughout the history of Islam. Hence, the earliest women in Islam were active in seeking and applying knowledge. The Prophet Muhammad pbuh even set aside a special time especially for teaching women, upon their request. Islam also recognized female scholarship in an age when women had no opportunity for education, much less teaching. In fact, women could be, and in fact were, sometimes superior to men in the mastery of Islamic sciences. It is no exaggeration to say that women have been involved in the teaching and development of Islamic legal thought since the very time of the Prophet.
As explained previously, revelation in Islam is composed of both the text of the Quran and of the Hadith. Thus, the hadith has been one of the most closely guarded and cherished of texts throughout all of Islamic history. The scholars of Hadith have possessed a special prestige since the earliest days of Islamic history due in part to their astoundingly expansive and accurate memories, and due to the fact that their knowledge and research protected the science of hadith from being infiltrated by distortions and fabrications. Thus, it may come as a surprise just how many of these noble and greatly honored scholars were in fact Muslim women.
Since the very beginning of Islamic history, Muslim women have played a significant role in the preservation of hadith, and this task was equally venerated by their successors down the centuries. In fact, in every generation of Muslim history there lived numerous distinguished female scholars of hadith, treated by their male brethren with the utmost of reverence and respect, as not only their noble teachers, but also their colleagues and students in other cases.
During the life of the Prophet Muhammad pbuh, a great number of women had not only been the reason behind the revelation of important and far-reaching statements of the Prophet for the rest of the Muslims, but had also been the ones to transmit these venerated statements of the Prophet to their Muslim sisters and brothers in faith. After the Prophet's death, many female Companions, particularly the Prophet’s respected wives, were looked upon as central keepers of this knowledge, and were approached for instruction by other Companions, to whom they readily dispensed the precious pearls of wisdom and understanding which they had gathered in the company of the Prophet Muhammad pbuh.
The names of ‘Aisha, Hafsa, Umm Salamah, Maymuna, and Umm Habiba, are well-known to every student of hadith as being among the earliest and most prominent transmitters of hadith. ‘Aisha, in particular, is one of the most central figures in all of hadith literature, not only as one of the most prolific narrators of hadith, but also as one of the most knowledgeable and respected analysts of the wise words of the Prophet Muhammad pbuh. (She ranks fourth in highest number, having narrated 2210 hadiths from the Prophet Muhammad pbuh.)
‘Aisha, the “Mother of the Believers” (All of the wives of the Prophet were known as “Mother of the Believers” due to their position and honor.) as she was named in the Quran, was not only a model for wives and mothers, but she was also a prominent commentator on the Quran, an authority on Hadith and also well versed in the disciplines of Islamic Law, Arabic history and literature. In fact, for those who question the role of women in Islam, one need only look back at how she was regularly consulted in countless and diverse religious matters both during the life of the Prophet, and even more after his death.
Among the most famed Companions and later great scholars of early Islam, Abu Musa al-Ash’ari is recorded to have said: “If we, the Companions of the Messenger of God, had any difficulty on a matter we asked ‘Aisha about it.” [Al-Muwatta of Imam Malik]
Moreover, the great scholar of the Students of the Companions, ‘Urwa ibnal Zubair says,
I did not find anyone more proficient [than ‘Aisha] in the knowledge of the Quran, the Commandments of Halal (lawful) and Haram (prohibited), Ilmul-Ansab (lineage) and Arabic poetry. That is why even senior companions of the Prophet used to consult ‘Aisha in resolving intricate issues. (Ibnul Qayyim and Ibn Sa'ad, Jala-ul-Afham, vol. 2, p. 26.)
Also, the great 8th Century scholar ibn Hajar said about ‘Aisha: “... it is said that a quarter of the rulings of Islamic law are narrated from her.” (Geissinger, A. ‘A’isha bint Abi Bakr and her Contributions to the Formation of the Islamic Tradition. Religion Compass 5/1 (2011): 37–49. Retrieved from: http://www.academia.edu/4240885/_Aisha_bint_Abi_Bakr_and_Her_Contributions_to_the_Formation_of_the_Islamic_Tradition_ )
Truly, in the field of hadith scholarship ‘Aisha stands tall. She narrated 2,210 authentic Hadith (more than any other Muslim except for the male Companions Abu Hurairah, Abdullah ibn ‘Umar and Anas ibn Malik). Moreover, over 300 people narrated hadith from her. (Nadwi, M.A. (2007). Al-Muhaddithat: the Women Scholars in Islam. Oxford: Interface Publications). Thus, she made a priceless and profound contribution, not only to the preservation of the tradition, or Sunnah, of the Final Prophet of God, but to all of Islamic knowledge in general. She is undoubtedly one of most distinguished personalities, not only in Islamic and women’s history, but in world history altogether.
Although ‘Aisha was the most prominent of the female scholars from the generation of the Prophet’s Companions, she was by no means the only such scholar of distinction and advanced learning. The celebrated 8th Century scholar and author Ibnul Qayyim gives a detailed account of 22 female companions who were known for issuing religious verdicts (fatawa) in the immediate years after the death of the Prophet. Al-Jawziyyah, I.Q. (n.d.).I'lam al-Muwaqqi'in 'an Rabb al-'Aalamin. Beirut: Dar al Kotob al Ilmiyyah,
In the period after the Companions too, women held vital positions as learned scholars of all Islamic sciences, hadith in particular. The late seventh century (less than 50 years after the death of the prophet Muhammad pbuh) witnessed the rise of several significant and key women scholars of hadith such as: Hafsah bint Sireen (who memorized over half a million hadith), Umm al-Darda al-Sagheerah, Mu`aadhah al-`Adawiyyah and bint `Abd al-Rahman ibn Sa`d—one of the outstanding students of ‘Aisha the wife of the Prophet. In addition to being well known hadith scholars, `Amrah and Hafsa were also legal scholars. Hafsa was also distinguished in Quran and counted the well-known Quranic commentator Qatadah as one of her students.
In the decades after them came the likes of 'Abida al-Madaniyyah, 'Abda bint Bishr, Umm Umar al-Thaqafiyya, Zaynab the granddaughter of Abdullah ibn Abbas, Nafisa bint al-Hasan ibn Ziyad, Khadija Umm Muhammad, 'Abda bint Abd al-Rahman, and several other Muslim women who were renowned for their notable public lectures on hadith. These pious and scholarly women came from the most diverse backgrounds, demonstrating that neither class, nor gender, were obstacles to ascending the ranks of Islamic scholarship.
This collaboration between women and men in the gathering and preserving of hadith literature continued into the ninth century CE when the great foundational collections of hadith were compiled. A detailed analysis of these essential compilations confirms that all the chief hadith compilers obtained a significant portion of their education from female hadith scholars. In fact, every major collection of hadith in use today lists the names of numerous women as the immediate authorities/narrators who narrated and explained the hadith to the authors of these key collections. And even after these central works had been compiled, many other women hadith scholars would later master them, and then pass on the knowledge they had gained by teaching these books through public lectures to large classes of male and female students, to whom they would then issue their own “ijazas”, or certifications of proficiency.
One such distinguished hadith scholar was Karima al-Marwaziyya who lived in the eleventh century CE and was considered the preeminent expert on Sahih al-Bukhari (the authentic hadith compilation of the hadith specialist Muhammad al-Bukhari) of her era. In fact, among her many students were the illustrious and celebrated scholars al-Khateeb al-Baghdadi and al-Humaydi.
Many modern day “Muslim feminist” writers falsely and unjustifiably allege that early Islamic legal and societal practices were a direct result of male domination of scholarship, and hence, interpretation of the central scriptural texts (Quran and Hadith). Yet, even a cursory review of the history of Islamic scholarship reveals that even the most revered book of Hadith, Sahih al-Bukhari, was in a number of cases taught to men by women. Later scholars who gave commentaries on Sahih al-Bukhari, like the famous Palestinian scholar ibn Hajar, also counted a number of female scholars as their teachers. These female teachers provided ibn Hajar with the deep understanding of literally thousands of hadith allowing him to write his famous commentary on Sahih al-Bukhari (Fath al-Bari).
Dr. Muhammad Zubayr Siddiqi writes the following regarding later female Islamic scholars of hadith in his excellent and ground-breaking book, Hadith Literature: Its Origin, Development, Special Features & Criticism:
In his work al-Durar al-Karima, Ibn Hajar provides several short biographical descriptions of about 170 prominent female scholars of the eighth century, most of whom were hadith specialists, and under many of whom the author himself had studied. Some of these women were acknowledged as the best hadith experts of their era. For example, the renowned hadith scholar Juwayriya bint Ahmad studied a series of works on hadith, under scholars both male and female, who taught at the great universities of that period. She then progressed to deliver several prominent lectures on a number of Islamic branches of study. ‘Some of my own teachers,’ reports Ibn Hajar, ‘and many of my contemporaries, attended her discourses.’ A'isha bin Abd al-Hadi, who for a substantial time was one of Ibn Hajar's teachers, was considered to be one of the finest hadith specialists of her time, and many students undertook long journeys in order to sit at her feet and study the sciences of Islam.
The famous historian of Damascus, Ibn Asakir, reports that he had studied under more than 1,200 men and 80 women scholars, obtained the certification (ijaaza) of Zaynab bint Abd al-Rahman for the Muwatta collection of Imam Malik. Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti studied the Risala of Imam Shafii with Hajar bint Muhammad. Afif al-Din Junayd, a traditionist of the ninth century AH, read the Sunan collection of al-Darimi with Fatima bin Ahmad ibn Qasim, and so on. Siddiqi, M.Z. (1961). Hadith Literature: Its Origin, Development, Special Features & Criticism. Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society
Other notable female scholars outside the realm of primary hadith specialization include: Zaynab bint Makki ibn `Ali ibn Kamil al-Harraniyyah who was a prominent 14th Century scholar from Damascus and a teacher of Ibn Taymiyyah and the famous hadith scholar al-Mizzi, among others. Zaynab bint Sulayman ibn Ibrahim al-As`ardi who was among the teachers of the two great mid-14th Century scholars al-Subki and al-Dhahabi. Zaynab had also studied Sahih al-Bukhari from the great scholar Ibn al-Zabidi. Also, Fatimah bint `Abbas al-Hanbaliyyah who was a prominent mid-14th Century legal scholar in the Hanbali legal school of Islamic Law and also a mufti, first in Damascus and then in Cairo. Other later female scholars of great eminence include Hanifah bint Abdur Rahman ibn Al-Qimni, Malikah bint Sharf-ud-Din ibn Abdullah Maqdisi and Um ‘Umar bint Taqi-ud-Din Rafe as-Salami of the 15th Century, who were teachers of the great scholars Jalal ad-Din as-Suyuti and ibn Hajar, respectively.
Hence it can be concluded that Muslim women, from the time of the Prophet Muhammad pbuh till at least the 15th Century, were respected by their male peers as not only equals in the realm of worship before God, but in fact they were in a number of cases the teachers of great male scholars and their collaborative partners in teaching such magnificent collections as Sahih al-Bukhari. In sharp contrast to the other religions that coexisted with Islam who limited or even barred their women from studying their respective scriptures, Islam lived its respect and reverence for women by not only directing them to study the divine revelations of God, but by further entrusting them with the momentous and heavy undertaking of preserving and explaining the profound meanings of these revelations to the student of knowledge and layman alike. The foundations of Islam, especially in narrating and preserving the statements of the Prophet Muhammad pbuh, would not have been complete had it not been for the impressive contributions of Muslim women throughout history.
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